Sustainable Urban Transport in Australia
Introduction
Whilst the personal automobile has brought with it many perceived benefits such as convenience, time saved, independence and even status, the use of this mode of transport in Australian cities has become excessive and unsustainable. This article examines the issue of Australia's dependence on cars for urban transport. It starts with a brief outline of the issue, and then goes on to explore some opportunities and barriers to addressing the problem from a variety of angles. Specifically, it looks at addressing the problem through five key approaches: individual / household, mainstream business, technocratic / design, radical, and government. The analysis is not intended to be exhaustive, but instead focuses on a few key areas for each approach. From the information presented, it can be seen that no single approach constitutes a silver bullet solution, and the development of sustainable urban transport systems in Australia will require strong initiative and action from all corners and in between.
The Need for Sustainable Urban Transport in Australia
For almost all Australians, cars have become the most favoured urban transport option, largely because they save time and are highly convenient. However, over time this has led to a dependence on cars, which is environmentally unsustainable. In terms of annual greenhouse gas emissions in Australia, the transport sector is the third largest (79.1 Million tons CO2-e or 14% of total) and second fastest growing (DCC 2008). Of all transport related greenhouse gas emissions, cars account for approximately 50% (BITRE 2008a, 24). Australia's dependence on cars is also economically unsustainable, and motorists have already seen evidence of (and felt) this: since 2003, average world oil prices have increased every year, and 2007 prices were almost double 2003 prices in real terms (EIA 2008, 1). In the absence of a global depression, this trend is set to continue as world peak oil nears. Sooner than one might expect, petrol will be unaffordable. Also, traffic congestion is becoming a serious problem in some cities, particularly Melbourne and Sydney, and these conditions are said to be responsible for a decline in productivity (ABC 2007). If current trends continue, it can be assumed that traffic congestion will become increasingly problematic, given that well over half a million new passenger cars are sold in Australia every year (BITRE 2008b). So, it is clear that Australia must take action to break the dependence on cars, and develop and implement sustainable urban transport systems now rather than later.
Individual / Household
Individuals and households are, for the most part, aware of ways to reduce the environmental impact and financial cost of their urban transportation. Moreover, this awareness can be translated into action through a powerful and universal faculty: the ability to choose.
Seyfang (2005) describes two different scenarios of 'ecological citizenship' that can develop: the 'mainstream' scenario involves a change in consumption patterns, whereas the 'alternative' scenario involves a change in lifestyle. Seyfang's concept can be applied to sustainable urban transport. For example, the mainstream scenario would see increasing use of hybrid cars and public transport. However, hybrid cars are still few and far between, and Cox (2006) points out that the use of public transport has been declining in Australia since the 1950s. The alternative scenario, on the other hand, would see more people walking and cycling instead of using motorised transport. Interestingly, bicycle sales have exceeded car sales over the last 4 years in Australia (CPF 2008), but it should also be noted that car sales are not decreasing.
So, what barriers are preventing the uptake of hybrid cars, public transport and active transport (walking and cycling)? In the case of hybrid cars, it can be assumed that uptake is largely hampered by the lack of choice. Not including luxury Lexus hybrid models that start at almost $100,000, Australian motorists have only two options: the Honda Civic or the Toyota Prius, which sell for $33,000 and 38,000 respectively (HerCar 2008). These limited options obviously do not fit the budget and requirements of most car buyers today, though hybrid sales are increasing. Public transport in Australian cities lacks popularity due to poor service. In a recent survey conducted by AAMI (2007), 33% of commuters said public transport is unreliable, and 39% said they choose not to use public transport because it takes too long to reach their destination. This points to a need for improved public transport infrastructure. Time constraints are also a barrier to the uptake of active transport (particularly walking), but Garrard (2007) reveals that the uptake of cycling is also hindered by concerns about riding in traffic, aggression from motorists and inhaling exhaust fumes. In this case, there is a need to improve both cycling infrastructure and interactions between cyclists and motorists.
Despite many barriers to addressing the problem, individuals can, at the very least, make an effort to use alternative urban transport options when circumstances permit, rather than depending on a car exclusively and without thinking.
Mainstream Business
The need for sustainable urban transport presents significant opportunity for businesses and corporations. Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn (2007) point out that more businesses are finding they must now adopt sustainable practices if they are to maintain and receive increased support from shareholders, employees and customers. By implementing sustainable urban transport measures, businesses can build reputational capital and save money at the same time.
One way to do this is through so-called 'green fleets'. A number of companies have already greened their fleets (with the Toyota Prius), including Alcoa, Hertz and Australia Post (Alcoa 2004; TravelMole 2008; TMR 2008). In the United States, a number of companies are even offering payments to their employees for the purchase of hybrid cars (HybridCars 2008). There is no reason why Australian companies could not offer employee incentives like this. Green fleet contracts and employee incentives could also be facilitated to support each other. For example, where a green fleet contract exists, employees should have the ability to purchase their own hybrid car at 'fleet cost' through the supplier. In a telephone conversation with the author on November 6, 2008, Alex from Toyota Fleet confirmed that Toyota does offer such fleet price discounts. By combining fleet price discounts with employee incentives, a win-win scenario can be achieved: employers can build extra reputational capital without needing to offer massive incentives (because the supplier also provides a fleet price discount), employees can purchase hybrids for the lowest possible price, and the supplier sells more hybrids as a result.
As with the household and individual approach, the business approach is limited by a lack of choice, but there will be increasing opportunity for green fleets and employee incentives in the future, particularly as Toyota will begin manufacturing a Camry hybrid in Melbourne in 2010 (Toyota 2008). It should be pointed out that whilst the above-mentioned strategies can lead to increased environmental and economic sustainability, they do not directly address the problem of traffic congestion. Therefore, businesses should also consider offering employee incentives that encourage active transport between the home and workplace.
Technocratic / Design
A technocratic approach to sustainable urban transport involves not only technology itself, but the strategic selection and implementation of technology. The goal is to ensure the highest possible compatibility between the technology and the social / physical environment within which it is implemented, in order to achieve the desired outcome of sustainable urban transport.
In part, it is the misuse of this approach that has led to a dependence on cars in Australia. Newman (2006, 6) argues that the preferred mode of transport in any city is governed by the average travel time budget of 1 hour/person/day. He goes on to explain that since 1950, Australian cities have developed into 'auto cities', spreading more than 50km in all directions and at low density. Newman (2006, 7) states: "In Australian... cities, many people have no choice but to use a car due to land use patterns... the 1 hour travel time budget is threatened unless a car is used". Thus, it is suggested that public transport infrastructure be upgraded so that all corridors provide rapid transit (especially electric rail) systems that are faster than traffic and highly reliable. Certainly, there is a lot of room for improvement in this area, and it is an opportunity to strike a balance between environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and structural sustainability, whilst accommodating the one-hour travel time budget.
Such significant public transport infrastructure upgrades will take time, are expensive, and essentially constitute a band-aid fix (or bandage fix in this case) for poor urban design. Therefore, public transport infrastructure upgrades should not be considered without also looking at opportunities to improve urban design. This is not a simple task, and will likely involve ongoing trial and error. Curtis (2005, 175) concludes, "A review of the vast body of literature on urban form and sustainable transport shows that there is no one universal model of the ideal city form, rather a number of approaches." One thing is certain: if Australian cities do not change their structure, car dependence and congestion will continue to increase.
Radical
Radical approaches have in the past made a significant impact on urban transport systems. For example, the anti-road protests in Britain during the 1990s led to a slowing of road construction, a Road Traffic Reduction Act, and widespread media coverage. More recently in Australia, anti-road protesters have put increasing pressure on the Brumby Government to scrap the proposed extension of the Eastern Freeway in Melbourne (RPPG 2008). Granted, this kind of radical activism has proven to be successful in some cases, but more often than not it is overridden by the powers that be. Wall (1999, 8) suggests that activist movements have sometimes lacked sound political strategy, particularly with regards to mobilisation and development, thus lessening their effectiveness.
An alternative angle is that of 'Deep Ecology', as illustrated by Naess (1995). Deep Ecology relates back to Seyfang's concept of 'alternative' ecological citizenship, where one's lifestyle is based on a new perception of wellbeing and quality of life. For example, one might value personal and environmental health more than time or money, and therefore decide to walk or cycle instead of drive a car. Experience and observation indicate that this kind of behavioural change is still difficult to achieve on a wide-scale, but can be encouraged by promoting the benefits of sustainable urban transport, provided that the necessary provisions are in place.
Government
The Australian Government is one of few to adopt a sustainable transport strategy (others include the UK and NZ). The main functions of the strategy are to: inform consumer choices, work with industry to improve vehicle efficiency, and explore and develop the use of alternative fuels (DEWHA 2008). Most notably omitted from this list is a specific initiative to improve public transport. PTUA (2007, 13) explains the problem:
This imbalance needs to be addressed, as the building of more roads will only increase car usage and dependence. Clearly, there is an opportunity to redirect federal and state government funds away from new roads and toward public transport infrastructure.
The Government also has the ability to use pricing signals to encourage the uptake of sustainable urban transport, and Green Left (2007) makes a strong case for free public transport, pointing out that the loss of Government revenue from fares would be more than offset by substantial gains elsewhere. Aside from the obvious and substantial benefits of reduced car use, free public transport would also improve the quality and efficiency of the service itself e.g. faster boarding times, and removal of the need for ticket equipment and personnel. Free public transport already exists in Australia, but its provision is restricted to certain areas, certain times, and certain people. If public transport was to be made free for all people, in all areas, and at all times, then infrastructure must be able to cope with increased demand. A trial period would be useful in assessing and projecting the demand for free public transport.
Conclusion
Sustainable urban transport is an issue that demands urgent attention in Australia. Addressing the issue will require a great deal of government leadership, financial investment, structural change, technological development, forethought, behavioural change, and common sense. Such changes will take time and may be difficult, but there are many opportunities for advancement. The individual approaches discussed in this paper constitute the bigger and broader solution that is needed, and the effectiveness of each approach is dependent upon integrated action. It is this integrated action that will serve as a means for overcoming the barriers to addressing the problem through each individual approach. Opportunities should be grasped now, as delaying will only make a bad situation worse.
References
AAMI. 2007. Commuters Shun Public Transport for Cars. http://www.aami.com.au/Resources/File.aspx?id=80 (accessed November 5, 2008).
ABC. 2007. 'Get real' call on Sydney Traffic Congestion. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/04/12/1895019.htm (accessed November 4, 2008).
Alcoa. 2004. Alcoa's New Toyota Prius fleet is World's Most Eco-Friendly. http://www.alcoa.com/australia/en/news/releases/Prius.asp (accessed November 5, 2008).
Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics. 2008a. Australian Transport Statistics June 2008. http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/40/Files/ATS_2008.pdf (accessed November 4, 2008).
Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics. 2008b. Australian Transport Statistics Yearbook 2007. http://www.btre.gov.au/statistics/files/BITRE_Yearbook.pdf (accessed November 4, 2008).
Cox, Dr John B. 2006. Less Public Transport = More Social Equity. Issues 76: 11-16.
Curtis, Carey. 2005. Network City: Retrofitting the Perth Metropolitan Region to Facilitate Sustainable Travel. Urban Policy and Research 24 (2): 159-180.
Cycling Promotion Fund. 2008. Bicycle Sales in Australia. http://www.cyclingpromotion.com.au/content/view/177/150 (accessed November 5, 2008). Department of Climate Change. 2008. National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2006. http://www.climatechange.gov.au/inventory/2006/index.html (accessed November 4, 2008).
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 2008. Sustainable Transport. http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/index.html (accessed November 7, 2008).
Dunphy, D., Griffiths, A., and Benn, S. 2007. Organisational Change for Corporate Sustainability: A Guide for Leaders and Change Agents for the Future. London: Routledge.
Energy Information Administration. 2008. International Energy Outlook 2008. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/0484(2008).pdf (accessed October 22, 2008).
Garrard, Jan. 2007. Media Release - Large Cycling Study Finds Room for Improvement to Uptake. http://www.deakin.edu.au/news/upload/221107cyclingstudy.pdf (accessed November 5, 2008).
Green Left. 2007. The Case for Free Public Transport. http://www.greenleft.org.au/2007/703/36537 (accessed November 7, 2008).
HerCar. 2008. Why Buy a Hybrid Car? http://www.hercar.com.au/articles/item/23875?gclid=CJOn5cGq3ZYCFRg6awody3Qz2g (accessed November 5, 2008).
HybridCars. 2008. Corporate Incentives for Hybrid and Alternative Cars. http://www.hybridcars.com/corporate-incentives.html (accessed November 5, 2008).
Naess, A. 1995. Deep Ecology and Lifestyle. Chapter 26 in Sessions, G. 1995. Deep Ecology for the 21st Century. Boston: Shambhala. 259-261.
Newman, Professor Peter. 2006. Sustainable Transport for Sustainable Cities. Issues 76: 6-10.
Public Transport Users Association. 2007. Moving Australians Sustainably - Transport Policy in the National Interest. http://www.ptua.org.au/federal/moving_australians-web.pdf (accessed November 7, 2008).
Royal Park Protection Group. 2008. Protest Schedules for Premier Brumby's Transport Summit. http://www.ycat.org.au/docs/Royal%20Park%20Protection%20Gr...%20Brubmy's%20Transport%20Summit.pdf (accessed November 6, 2008).
Seyfang, G. 2005. Shopping for Sustainability: Can Sustainable Consumption Promote Ecological Citizenship. Environmental Politics 14 (2): 290-306.
The Motor Report. 2008. Australia Post Fleet Will Feature More Hybrids. http://www.themotorreport.com.au/7024/australia-post-fleet-will-feature-more-hybrids (accessed November 5, 2008).
Toyota. 2008. Hybrid Camry Benefits Fleets. http://www.toyota.com.au/toyota/fleet/ArticleDetail/0,4810,2026_722_13261,00.html (accessed November 5, 2008).
TrevelMole. 2008. Hertz to Operate 500 Toyota Prius Hybrids in Aus. http://www.travelmole.com/stories/1129757.php (accessed November 5, 2008).
Wall, D. 1999. Earth First! And the Anti-Roads Movement. London: Routledge.
Whilst the personal automobile has brought with it many perceived benefits such as convenience, time saved, independence and even status, the use of this mode of transport in Australian cities has become excessive and unsustainable. This article examines the issue of Australia's dependence on cars for urban transport. It starts with a brief outline of the issue, and then goes on to explore some opportunities and barriers to addressing the problem from a variety of angles. Specifically, it looks at addressing the problem through five key approaches: individual / household, mainstream business, technocratic / design, radical, and government. The analysis is not intended to be exhaustive, but instead focuses on a few key areas for each approach. From the information presented, it can be seen that no single approach constitutes a silver bullet solution, and the development of sustainable urban transport systems in Australia will require strong initiative and action from all corners and in between.
The Need for Sustainable Urban Transport in Australia
For almost all Australians, cars have become the most favoured urban transport option, largely because they save time and are highly convenient. However, over time this has led to a dependence on cars, which is environmentally unsustainable. In terms of annual greenhouse gas emissions in Australia, the transport sector is the third largest (79.1 Million tons CO2-e or 14% of total) and second fastest growing (DCC 2008). Of all transport related greenhouse gas emissions, cars account for approximately 50% (BITRE 2008a, 24). Australia's dependence on cars is also economically unsustainable, and motorists have already seen evidence of (and felt) this: since 2003, average world oil prices have increased every year, and 2007 prices were almost double 2003 prices in real terms (EIA 2008, 1). In the absence of a global depression, this trend is set to continue as world peak oil nears. Sooner than one might expect, petrol will be unaffordable. Also, traffic congestion is becoming a serious problem in some cities, particularly Melbourne and Sydney, and these conditions are said to be responsible for a decline in productivity (ABC 2007). If current trends continue, it can be assumed that traffic congestion will become increasingly problematic, given that well over half a million new passenger cars are sold in Australia every year (BITRE 2008b). So, it is clear that Australia must take action to break the dependence on cars, and develop and implement sustainable urban transport systems now rather than later.
Individual / Household
Individuals and households are, for the most part, aware of ways to reduce the environmental impact and financial cost of their urban transportation. Moreover, this awareness can be translated into action through a powerful and universal faculty: the ability to choose.
Seyfang (2005) describes two different scenarios of 'ecological citizenship' that can develop: the 'mainstream' scenario involves a change in consumption patterns, whereas the 'alternative' scenario involves a change in lifestyle. Seyfang's concept can be applied to sustainable urban transport. For example, the mainstream scenario would see increasing use of hybrid cars and public transport. However, hybrid cars are still few and far between, and Cox (2006) points out that the use of public transport has been declining in Australia since the 1950s. The alternative scenario, on the other hand, would see more people walking and cycling instead of using motorised transport. Interestingly, bicycle sales have exceeded car sales over the last 4 years in Australia (CPF 2008), but it should also be noted that car sales are not decreasing.
So, what barriers are preventing the uptake of hybrid cars, public transport and active transport (walking and cycling)? In the case of hybrid cars, it can be assumed that uptake is largely hampered by the lack of choice. Not including luxury Lexus hybrid models that start at almost $100,000, Australian motorists have only two options: the Honda Civic or the Toyota Prius, which sell for $33,000 and 38,000 respectively (HerCar 2008). These limited options obviously do not fit the budget and requirements of most car buyers today, though hybrid sales are increasing. Public transport in Australian cities lacks popularity due to poor service. In a recent survey conducted by AAMI (2007), 33% of commuters said public transport is unreliable, and 39% said they choose not to use public transport because it takes too long to reach their destination. This points to a need for improved public transport infrastructure. Time constraints are also a barrier to the uptake of active transport (particularly walking), but Garrard (2007) reveals that the uptake of cycling is also hindered by concerns about riding in traffic, aggression from motorists and inhaling exhaust fumes. In this case, there is a need to improve both cycling infrastructure and interactions between cyclists and motorists.
Despite many barriers to addressing the problem, individuals can, at the very least, make an effort to use alternative urban transport options when circumstances permit, rather than depending on a car exclusively and without thinking.
Mainstream Business
The need for sustainable urban transport presents significant opportunity for businesses and corporations. Dunphy, Griffiths and Benn (2007) point out that more businesses are finding they must now adopt sustainable practices if they are to maintain and receive increased support from shareholders, employees and customers. By implementing sustainable urban transport measures, businesses can build reputational capital and save money at the same time.
One way to do this is through so-called 'green fleets'. A number of companies have already greened their fleets (with the Toyota Prius), including Alcoa, Hertz and Australia Post (Alcoa 2004; TravelMole 2008; TMR 2008). In the United States, a number of companies are even offering payments to their employees for the purchase of hybrid cars (HybridCars 2008). There is no reason why Australian companies could not offer employee incentives like this. Green fleet contracts and employee incentives could also be facilitated to support each other. For example, where a green fleet contract exists, employees should have the ability to purchase their own hybrid car at 'fleet cost' through the supplier. In a telephone conversation with the author on November 6, 2008, Alex from Toyota Fleet confirmed that Toyota does offer such fleet price discounts. By combining fleet price discounts with employee incentives, a win-win scenario can be achieved: employers can build extra reputational capital without needing to offer massive incentives (because the supplier also provides a fleet price discount), employees can purchase hybrids for the lowest possible price, and the supplier sells more hybrids as a result.
As with the household and individual approach, the business approach is limited by a lack of choice, but there will be increasing opportunity for green fleets and employee incentives in the future, particularly as Toyota will begin manufacturing a Camry hybrid in Melbourne in 2010 (Toyota 2008). It should be pointed out that whilst the above-mentioned strategies can lead to increased environmental and economic sustainability, they do not directly address the problem of traffic congestion. Therefore, businesses should also consider offering employee incentives that encourage active transport between the home and workplace.
Technocratic / Design
A technocratic approach to sustainable urban transport involves not only technology itself, but the strategic selection and implementation of technology. The goal is to ensure the highest possible compatibility between the technology and the social / physical environment within which it is implemented, in order to achieve the desired outcome of sustainable urban transport.
In part, it is the misuse of this approach that has led to a dependence on cars in Australia. Newman (2006, 6) argues that the preferred mode of transport in any city is governed by the average travel time budget of 1 hour/person/day. He goes on to explain that since 1950, Australian cities have developed into 'auto cities', spreading more than 50km in all directions and at low density. Newman (2006, 7) states: "In Australian... cities, many people have no choice but to use a car due to land use patterns... the 1 hour travel time budget is threatened unless a car is used". Thus, it is suggested that public transport infrastructure be upgraded so that all corridors provide rapid transit (especially electric rail) systems that are faster than traffic and highly reliable. Certainly, there is a lot of room for improvement in this area, and it is an opportunity to strike a balance between environmental sustainability, economic sustainability and structural sustainability, whilst accommodating the one-hour travel time budget.
Such significant public transport infrastructure upgrades will take time, are expensive, and essentially constitute a band-aid fix (or bandage fix in this case) for poor urban design. Therefore, public transport infrastructure upgrades should not be considered without also looking at opportunities to improve urban design. This is not a simple task, and will likely involve ongoing trial and error. Curtis (2005, 175) concludes, "A review of the vast body of literature on urban form and sustainable transport shows that there is no one universal model of the ideal city form, rather a number of approaches." One thing is certain: if Australian cities do not change their structure, car dependence and congestion will continue to increase.
Radical
Radical approaches have in the past made a significant impact on urban transport systems. For example, the anti-road protests in Britain during the 1990s led to a slowing of road construction, a Road Traffic Reduction Act, and widespread media coverage. More recently in Australia, anti-road protesters have put increasing pressure on the Brumby Government to scrap the proposed extension of the Eastern Freeway in Melbourne (RPPG 2008). Granted, this kind of radical activism has proven to be successful in some cases, but more often than not it is overridden by the powers that be. Wall (1999, 8) suggests that activist movements have sometimes lacked sound political strategy, particularly with regards to mobilisation and development, thus lessening their effectiveness.
An alternative angle is that of 'Deep Ecology', as illustrated by Naess (1995). Deep Ecology relates back to Seyfang's concept of 'alternative' ecological citizenship, where one's lifestyle is based on a new perception of wellbeing and quality of life. For example, one might value personal and environmental health more than time or money, and therefore decide to walk or cycle instead of drive a car. Experience and observation indicate that this kind of behavioural change is still difficult to achieve on a wide-scale, but can be encouraged by promoting the benefits of sustainable urban transport, provided that the necessary provisions are in place.
Government
The Australian Government is one of few to adopt a sustainable transport strategy (others include the UK and NZ). The main functions of the strategy are to: inform consumer choices, work with industry to improve vehicle efficiency, and explore and develop the use of alternative fuels (DEWHA 2008). Most notably omitted from this list is a specific initiative to improve public transport. PTUA (2007, 13) explains the problem:
Federal funding for road projects is generally only provided if matching funds are also provided by the state government. As a result, state governments can be required to direct a significant portion of their transport expenditure to road projects that are jointly funded by the federal government. In effect, the current federal transport funding framework not only starves public transport of federal funding, it also reduces the share of state funding that is available for improving public transport.
This imbalance needs to be addressed, as the building of more roads will only increase car usage and dependence. Clearly, there is an opportunity to redirect federal and state government funds away from new roads and toward public transport infrastructure.
The Government also has the ability to use pricing signals to encourage the uptake of sustainable urban transport, and Green Left (2007) makes a strong case for free public transport, pointing out that the loss of Government revenue from fares would be more than offset by substantial gains elsewhere. Aside from the obvious and substantial benefits of reduced car use, free public transport would also improve the quality and efficiency of the service itself e.g. faster boarding times, and removal of the need for ticket equipment and personnel. Free public transport already exists in Australia, but its provision is restricted to certain areas, certain times, and certain people. If public transport was to be made free for all people, in all areas, and at all times, then infrastructure must be able to cope with increased demand. A trial period would be useful in assessing and projecting the demand for free public transport.
Conclusion
Sustainable urban transport is an issue that demands urgent attention in Australia. Addressing the issue will require a great deal of government leadership, financial investment, structural change, technological development, forethought, behavioural change, and common sense. Such changes will take time and may be difficult, but there are many opportunities for advancement. The individual approaches discussed in this paper constitute the bigger and broader solution that is needed, and the effectiveness of each approach is dependent upon integrated action. It is this integrated action that will serve as a means for overcoming the barriers to addressing the problem through each individual approach. Opportunities should be grasped now, as delaying will only make a bad situation worse.
References
AAMI. 2007. Commuters Shun Public Transport for Cars. http://www.aami.com.au/Resources/File.aspx?id=80 (accessed November 5, 2008).
ABC. 2007. 'Get real' call on Sydney Traffic Congestion. http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/04/12/1895019.htm (accessed November 4, 2008).
Alcoa. 2004. Alcoa's New Toyota Prius fleet is World's Most Eco-Friendly. http://www.alcoa.com/australia/en/news/releases/Prius.asp (accessed November 5, 2008).
Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics. 2008a. Australian Transport Statistics June 2008. http://www.bitre.gov.au/publications/40/Files/ATS_2008.pdf (accessed November 4, 2008).
Bureau of Infrastructure, Transport and Regional Economics. 2008b. Australian Transport Statistics Yearbook 2007. http://www.btre.gov.au/statistics/files/BITRE_Yearbook.pdf (accessed November 4, 2008).
Cox, Dr John B. 2006. Less Public Transport = More Social Equity. Issues 76: 11-16.
Curtis, Carey. 2005. Network City: Retrofitting the Perth Metropolitan Region to Facilitate Sustainable Travel. Urban Policy and Research 24 (2): 159-180.
Cycling Promotion Fund. 2008. Bicycle Sales in Australia. http://www.cyclingpromotion.com.au/content/view/177/150 (accessed November 5, 2008). Department of Climate Change. 2008. National Greenhouse Gas Inventory 2006. http://www.climatechange.gov.au/inventory/2006/index.html (accessed November 4, 2008).
Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts. 2008. Sustainable Transport. http://www.environment.gov.au/settlements/transport/index.html (accessed November 7, 2008).
Dunphy, D., Griffiths, A., and Benn, S. 2007. Organisational Change for Corporate Sustainability: A Guide for Leaders and Change Agents for the Future. London: Routledge.
Energy Information Administration. 2008. International Energy Outlook 2008. http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ieo/pdf/0484(2008).pdf (accessed October 22, 2008).
Garrard, Jan. 2007. Media Release - Large Cycling Study Finds Room for Improvement to Uptake. http://www.deakin.edu.au/news/upload/221107cyclingstudy.pdf (accessed November 5, 2008).
Green Left. 2007. The Case for Free Public Transport. http://www.greenleft.org.au/2007/703/36537 (accessed November 7, 2008).
HerCar. 2008. Why Buy a Hybrid Car? http://www.hercar.com.au/articles/item/23875?gclid=CJOn5cGq3ZYCFRg6awody3Qz2g (accessed November 5, 2008).
HybridCars. 2008. Corporate Incentives for Hybrid and Alternative Cars. http://www.hybridcars.com/corporate-incentives.html (accessed November 5, 2008).
Naess, A. 1995. Deep Ecology and Lifestyle. Chapter 26 in Sessions, G. 1995. Deep Ecology for the 21st Century. Boston: Shambhala. 259-261.
Newman, Professor Peter. 2006. Sustainable Transport for Sustainable Cities. Issues 76: 6-10.
Public Transport Users Association. 2007. Moving Australians Sustainably - Transport Policy in the National Interest. http://www.ptua.org.au/federal/moving_australians-web.pdf (accessed November 7, 2008).
Royal Park Protection Group. 2008. Protest Schedules for Premier Brumby's Transport Summit. http://www.ycat.org.au/docs/Royal%20Park%20Protection%20Gr...%20Brubmy's%20Transport%20Summit.pdf (accessed November 6, 2008).
Seyfang, G. 2005. Shopping for Sustainability: Can Sustainable Consumption Promote Ecological Citizenship. Environmental Politics 14 (2): 290-306.
The Motor Report. 2008. Australia Post Fleet Will Feature More Hybrids. http://www.themotorreport.com.au/7024/australia-post-fleet-will-feature-more-hybrids (accessed November 5, 2008).
Toyota. 2008. Hybrid Camry Benefits Fleets. http://www.toyota.com.au/toyota/fleet/ArticleDetail/0,4810,2026_722_13261,00.html (accessed November 5, 2008).
TrevelMole. 2008. Hertz to Operate 500 Toyota Prius Hybrids in Aus. http://www.travelmole.com/stories/1129757.php (accessed November 5, 2008).
Wall, D. 1999. Earth First! And the Anti-Roads Movement. London: Routledge.
EV Resources
EV Companies
The need of the hour is vehicles that are powered by an energy source that is both sustainable and hopefully renewable as well. EVs can potentially be powered by the sun, wind, hydro etc. and this is the reason that they are a genuine option to gas guzzlers. The Aussie model should be interesting to see in terms of viability and cost effectiveness.